Borrelia burgdorferi
The Deer Tick’s Dark Secret
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.33043/FF.10.1.9-37Keywords:
Borrelia burgdorferi, Ixodes scapularis, Lyme Disease, Spirochete, Vector-borne infectionAbstract
Since its recent discovery in the late 1970s, Lyme Disease (LD) has been a growing public health concern, especially in the United States where it accounts for the majority of vector-borne infections each year. The causative agent, Borrelia burgdorferi, is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected Ixodes tick. This pathogen uses many unique mechanisms to both shield itself from the host immune response and cause disease. Clinically, LD presents in successive phases, with each increasing in severity as the bacterial cells migrate to new tissues and organ systems. On the epidemiological and ecological fronts, limitations in reporting, ecological changes, and a lack of public support hinder accurate surveillance and enhance the spread of the disease. The goal of this literature review is to increase public knowledge of B. burgdorferi, its vector, and the disease it causes, along with suggesting preventative measures to protect individuals who reside in high-risk areas. A collective and coordinated public health effort represents our greatest chance of restraining the LD-causing pathogen.
Downloads
References
Ahmed N. 2014. Cultivation of parasites. Tropical Parasitology. 4(2): 80-89. doi:10.4103/2229-5070.138534. Url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4166808/
Anderson C, and Brissette C. 2021. The Brilliance of Borrelia: Mechanisms of Host Immune Evasion by Lyme Disease-Causing Spirochetes. Pathogens. 10(3): 281. doi:10.3390/pathogens10030281. Url: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/10/3/281
Ante V, Farris L, Saputra E, Hall A, O’Bier N, Chavez A, Marconi R, Lybecker M, Hyde J. 2021. The Borrelia burgdorferi Adenylate Cyclase, CyaB, Is Important for Virulence Factor Production and Mammalian Infection. Frontiers in Microbiology. 25(12): 676192. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.676192. Url: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2021.676192/full
Arsnoe I, Hickling G, Ginsberg H, McElreath R, Tsao J. 2015. Different Populations of Blacklegged Tick Nymphs Exhibit Differences in Questing Behavior That Have Implications for Human Lyme Disease Risk. PLOS ONE. 10(5): e0127450. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127450. Url: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0127450
Arvikar S, Steer A. 2015. Diagnosis and Treatment of Lyme Arthritis. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 29(2): 269-280. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2015.02.004. Url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4443866/
Bernard Q, Smith A, Yang X, Koci J, Foor S, Cramer S, Zhuang X, Dwyer J, Lin Y, Mongodin E, Marques A, Leong J, Anguita J, Pal U. 2018. Plasticity in early immune evasion strategies of a bacterial pathogen. PNAS. 115(16): E3788-E3797. doi:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718595115. Url: https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1718595115
Burgdorfer W, Barbour A, Hayes S, Benach J, Grunwaldt E, Davis J. 1982. Lyme Disease-A Tick-Borne Spirochetosis? Science. 216: 1317-1319. doi:10.1126/science.7043737. Url: https://escholarship.org/content/qt9vj3t37b/qt9vj3t37b_noSplash_13d2b56576d2ac55d60a1dd32ddc3074.pdf
Carrasco S, Troxell B, Yang Y, Brandt S, Li H, Sandusky G, Condon K, Serezani C, Yang X. 2015. Outer Surface Protein OspC Is an Antiphagocytic Factor That Protects Borrelia burgdorferi from Phagocytosis by Macrophages. Infection and Immunity. 83(12): 4848-4860. doi:https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.01215-15. Url: https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/IAI.01215-15
Cavestro G, Ingegnoli A, Aragona G, Lori V, Mantovani N, Altavilla N, Dal Bo N, Pilotto A, Bertele A, Franze A, Di Mario F, Borghi L. 2002. Acta Biomedica. 73(5-6): 71-3. Url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12643075/#:~:text=Lactoferrin%20is%20an%20iron%20binding,ions%20available%20for%20microorganism%27s%20metabolism
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Last reviewed November 15, 2022. Lyme Disease: Surveillance explained and available data. Accessed March 18, 2022. Url: https://www.cdc.gov/lyme/stats/survfaq.html#:~:text=Limitations%20of%20surveillance%20data&text=Not%20every%20case%20of%20Lyme,occur%20in%20low%20incidence%20areas.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Last reviewed February 5, 2020. CDC-TV: What You Need to Know about Permethrin-transcript. Accessed January 7, 2023. Url: https://www.cdc.gov/cdctv/injuryviolenceandsafety/permethrin-transcript.html
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance. Last reviewed August 30, 2021. Lyme Disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) 2022 Case Definition. Accessed March 17, 2022. Url: https://ndc.services.cdc.gov/case-definitions/lyme-disease-2022/
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Disease (NCEZID), Division of Vector-Borne Diseases (DVBD). Last reviewed August 29, 2022. Lyme Disease: Data and surveillance. Accessed March 18, 2022. Url: https://www.cdc.gov/lyme/datasurveillance/index.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Flyme%2Fstats%2Findex.html
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Disease (NCEZID), Division of Vector-Borne Diseases (DVBD). Last reviewed May 13, 2022. Ticks: Removing a tick. Accessed January 10, 2023. Url: https://www.cdc.gov/ticks/removing_a_tick.html
Chaconas G, Castellanos M, Verbey T. 2020. Changing of the guard: How the Lyme disease spirochete subverts the host immune response. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 295(2): 301-313. doi:https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.REV119.008583. Url: https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(17)48327-X/fulltext
Chung Y, Zhang N, Wooten R. 2013. Borrelia burgdorferi Elicited-IL-10 Suppresses the Production of Inflammatory Mediators, Phagocytosis, and Expression of Co-Stimulatory Receptors by Murine Macrophages and/or Dendritic Cells. PLOS ONE. 8(12): e84980. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084980. Url: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0084980
Comstedt P, Schuler W, Meinke A, Lundberg U. 2017. The novel Lyme borreliosis vaccine VLA15 shows broad protection against Borrelia species expressing six different OspA serotypes. PLOS ONE. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184357. Url: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0184357&type=printable
Cook M. 2014. Lyme borreliosis: a review of data on transmission time after tick attachment. International Journal of General Medicine. 8: 1-8. doi:10.2147/IJGM.S73791. Url: https://www.dovepress.com/lyme-borreliosis-a-review-of-data-on-transmission-time-after-tick-atta-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IJGM
Diuk-Wasser M, Vannier E, Krause P. 2016. Coinfection by Ixodes Tick-Borne Pathogens: Ecological, Epidemiological, and Clinical Consequences. Trends in Parasitology. 32(1): 30-42. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2015.09.008. Url: https://www.cell.com/trends/parasitology/fulltext/S1471-4922(15)00210-X?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS147149221500210X%3Fshowall%3Dtrue
Elsner R, Hastey C, Olsen K, Baumgarth N. 2015. Suppression of Long-Lived Humoral Immunity Following Borrelia burgdorferi Infection. PLOS PATHOGENS. 11(7): e1004976. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1004976. Url: https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1004976
Fish A, Pride Y, Pinto D. 2008 Lyme Carditis. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 22:275-288. Url: https://www.cdc.gov/lyme/resources/fish2008-508.pdf
Ford L, Tufts D. 2021. Lyme Neuroborreliosis: Mechanisms of B. burgdorferi Infection of the Nervous System. Brain Sciences. 11(6): 789. doi:10.3390/brainsci11060789. Url: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/11/6/789
Fraser C, Casjens S, Huang W, Sutton G, Clayton R, Lathigra R, White O, Ketchum K, Dodson R, Hickey E, Gwinn M, Dougherty B, Tomb J, Fleischmann R, Richardson D, Peterson J, Kerlavage A, Quachenbush J, Salzburg S, Hanson M, Vugt R, Palmer N, Adams M, Gocayne J, Weidman J, Utterback T, Watthey L, McDonald L, Artiach P, Bowman C, Garland S, Fujii C, Cotton M, Horst K, Roberts K, Hatch B, Smith H, Venter J. 1997. Genomic sequence of a Lyme disease spirochaete, Borrelia burgdorferi. Nature. 390: 580-586. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/37551. Url: https://www.nature.com/articles/37551
Fuchs H, Wallich R, Simon M, Kramer M. 1994. The outer surface protein A of the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi is a plasmin(ogen) receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 91:12594–12598. doi:10.1073/pnas.91.26.12594. Url: https://www.pnas.org/doi/epdf/10.1073/pnas.91.26.12594
Gunduz A, Turkmen S, Turedi S, Nuhoglu I, Topbas M. 2008. Tick Attachment Sites. Wilderness and Environmental Medicine. 19(1):4-6. doi:https://doi.org/10.1580/06-WEME-BR-067.1. Url: https://www.wemjournal.org/article/S1080-6032(08)70142-X/fulltext
Hahn M, Jarnevich C, Monaghan A, Eisen R. 2016. Modeling the Geographic Distribution of Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes pacificus in the Contiguous United States. Journal of Medical Entomology. 53(5): 1176-1191. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjw076. Url: https://academic.oup.com/jme/article/53/5/1176/1751790
Hallstrom R, Haupt K, Kraiczy P, Hortschansky P, Wallich C, Zipfel P. 2010. Complement Regulator—Acquiring Surface Protein 1 of Borrelia burgdorferi Binds to Human Bone Morphogenetic Protein 2, Several Extracellular Matrix Proteins, and Plasminogen. The Journal of Infectious Disease. 202(3):490-498. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/653825. Url: https://academic.oup.com/jid/article/202/3/490/831946
Hastey C, Elsner R, Barthold S, Baumgarth N. 2012. Delays and Diversions Mark the Development of B Cell Responses to Borrelia burgdorferi Infection. The Journal of Immunology. 188:5612-5622. doi:https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1103735. Url: https://journals.aai.org/jimmunol/article/188/11/5612/86779/Delays-and-Diversions-Mark-the-Development-of-B
Holmes N, Charles P. 2009. Safety and Efficacy Review of Doxycycline. SAGE Journals- Clinical medicine Insights: Therapeutics. doi:https://doi.org/10.4137/CMT.S2035. Url: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.4137/CMT.S2035
Hu L, Steere A, Hall K. 2023. Patient education: Lyme disease symptoms and diagnosis (Beyond the Basics). UpToDate. Url: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/lyme-disease-symptoms-and-diagnosis-beyond-the-basics/print
Kean W, Tocchio S, Kean M, Rainsford K. 2012. The musculoskeletal abnormalities of the Similaun Iceman (“ÖTZI”): clues to chronic pain and possible treatments. Inflammopharmacology. 21: 11-20. doi:10.1007/s10787-012-0153-5. Url: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10787-012-0153-5
Kudryashev M, Cyrklaff M, Baumeister W, Simon M, Wallich R, Frischknecht F. 2009. Comparative cryo-electron tomography of pathogenic Lyme disease spirochetes. Molecular Microbiology. 71(6): 1415-1434. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2958.2009.06613.x. Url: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2958.2009.06613.x
Kugeler K, Jordan R, Schulze T, Griffith K, Mead P. 2015. Will Culling White-Tailed Deer Prevent Lyme Disease? Zoonoses and Public Health. 63(5): 337-345. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12245. Url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4912954/
Kugeler K, Schwartz A, Delorey M, Mead P, Hinckley A. 2021. Estimating the Frequency of Lyme Disease Diagnoses, United States, 2010-2018. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 27(2): 616-619. doi:10.3201/eid2702.202731. Url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7853543/
Levi T, Kilpatrick A, Mangel M, Wilmers C. 2012. Deer, predators, and the emergence of Lyme disease. PNAS. 109(27). doi:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1204536109. Url: https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1204536109
Lindquist S, Goldoft M. 2021. Impact of a Pandemic on Disease Reporting. epiTRENDS. 26(1). Url: https://doh.wa.gov/sites/default/files/legacy/Documents/5100//420-002-epitrends2021-01.pdf
Lloyd D. 1976. Circular Letter #12-32 To: Directors of Health (Lyme Disease PSA). State of Connecticut: State Department of Health. Hartford, Connecticut, 06115. Url: https://portal.ct.gov/-/media/Departments-and-Agencies/DPH/dph/infectious_diseases/lyme/1976circularletterpdf.pdf
Lloyd S, Tang H, Wang X, Hillings S, Blair D. 1995. Torque Generation in the Flagellar motion of Escherichia coli: Evidence of a Direct Role for FliG but Not for FliM or FliN. Journal of Bacteriology. 178(1): 223-231. doi:https://doi.org/10.1128/jb.178.1.223-231.1996. Url: https://journals.asm.org/doi/epdf/10.1128/jb.178.1.223-231.1996
Lowder B, Duyvesteyn M, Blair D. 2005. FliG Subunit Arrangement in the Flagellar Rotor Probes by Targeted Cross-Linking. Journal of Bacteriology. 187(16): 5640-5647. doi:10.1128/JB.187.16.5640-5647.2005. Url: https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/JB.187.16.5640-5647.2005
Lybecker M, Samuels D. 2007. Temperature-induced regulation of RpoS by a small RNA in Borrelia burgdorferi. Molecular Microbiology. 64(4) 1075-1089. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2958.2007.05716.x. Url: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2958.2007.05716.x
Markeljevic J, Sarac H, Rados M. 2011. Tremor, seizures and psychosis as presenting symptoms in a patient with chronic lyme neuroborreliosis (LNB). Collegium Antropologicum. Suppl 1:313-8. Url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21648354/
Mather T, Ribeiro J, Spielman A. 1987. Lyme disease and babesiosis: acaricide focused on potentially infected ticks. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 36(3): 609-614. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1987.36.609. Url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3555140/
McCormick D, Kugeler K, Marx G, Jayanthi P, Dietz S, Mead, P, Hinckley A. 2021. Effects of COVID-19 Pandemic on Reported Lyme Disease, United States, 2020. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 27(10): 2715-2717. Doi: 10.3201/eid2710.210903. Url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8462321/#:~:text=Despite%20ongoing%20exposure%2C%20Lyme%20disease,changes%20in%20healthcare%2Dseeking%20behavior.
Merilainen L, Herranen A, Schwarzbach A, Gilbert L. 2015. Morphological and biochemical features of Borrelia burgdorferi pleomorphic forms. Microbiology. 161(Pt 3): 516–527. doi:10.1099/mic.0.000027. Url: https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/micro/10.1099/mic.0.000027
Miller N, Rainone E, Dyer M, Gonzales M, Mather T. 2011. Tick Bite Protection With permethrin-Treated Summer-Weight Clothing. Journal of Medical Entomology. 48(2): 327-333. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1603/ME10158. Url: https://academic.oup.com/jme/article/48/2/327/893233?login=false
Murfin K, Kleinbard R, Aydin M, Salazar S, Fikrig E. 2019. Borrelia burgdorferi chemotaxis toward tick protein Salp12 contributes to acquisition. Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. 10(5):1124-1134. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.06.002. Url: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1877959X19300950?via%3Dihub
Murgia R, Cinco M. 2004. Induction of cystic forms by different stress conditions in Borrelia burgdorferi. Journal of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology. 112(1):57-62. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0463.2004.apm1120110.x. Url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14961976/
Murray T, Shapiro E. 2012. Lyme Disease. Clinics in Laboratory Medicine. 30(1):311-328. doi:10.1016/j.cll.2010.01.003. Url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3652387/
Nadelman R, Nowakowski J, Fish D, Falco R, Freeman K, McKenna D, Welch P, Marcus R, Aguero-Rosenfeld M, Dennis D, Wormser G, Tick Bite Study Group. 2001. Prophylaxis with Single-Dose Doxycycline for the Prevention of lyme Disease after an Ixodes scapularis Tick Bite. New England Journal of Medicine. 345: 79-84. doi:10.1056/NEJM200107123450201. Url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11450675/
Nagi K, Joshi R, Thakur R. 1996. Cardiac Manifestations of Lyme Disease: a review. Canadian Journal of Cardiology. 12(5): 503-506. PMID: 8640597. Url: https://europepmc.org/article/med/8640597
National Pesticide Information Center (NPIC). Last reviewed 2003. Carbaryl: General Fact Sheet. Accessed January 9, 2023. Url: http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/carbgen.pdf
Nelson, Christina A. et al. September 2015. Incidence of Clinician-Diagnosed Lyme Disease, United States, 2005-2010. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 21(9): 1625-1631. doi:10.3201/eid2109.150417
Nigrovic L, Thompson K. 2007. The Lyme vaccine: a cautionary tale. Epidemiology & Infection. 135(1): 1-8. Doi: 10.1017/S0950268806007096. Url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2870557/
Ogden N, Barker I, Francis C, Heagy A, Lindsay L, Hobson K. 2015. How far north are migrant birds transporting the tick Ixodes scapularis in Canada? Insights from stable hydrogen isotope analyses of feathers. Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. 6(6): 715-720. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ttbdis.2015.06.004. Url: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1877959X15001119?via%3Dihub
Onder O, Humphrey P, McOmber B, Korobova F, Francella N, Greenbaum D, Brisson D. 2012. OspC Is a Potent Plasminogen Receptor on the Surface of Borrelia burgdorferi. Journal of Biological Chemistry (Cell Biology). 287(20):16860-16868. doi:https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M111.290775. Url: https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(20)60819-5/fulltext
Ostfeld R, Brunner J. 2015. Climate change and Ixodes tick-borne disease of humans. The Royal Society Publishing; Philosophical Transactions B. 370:20140051. doi:https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0051. Url: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2014.0051
Piesman J. 1993. Dynamics of Borrelia burgdorferi transmission by nymphal Ixodes dammini ticks. Journal of Infectious Disease. 167(5):1082-5. doi:10.1093/infdis/167.5.1082. Url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8486940/
Poland G. 2001. Prevention of Lyme Disease: A Review of the Evidence. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 76(7): 713-724. doi:https://doi.org/10.4065/76.7.713. Url: https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(11)65002-7/fulltext
Popitsch N, Bilusic I, Rescheneder P, Schroeder R, Lybecker M. 2017. Temperature-dependent sRNA transcriptome of the Lyme disease spirochete. BMC Genomics. 18: 28. Doi: 10.1186/s12864-016-3398-3. Url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5216591/
Purser J, Norris S. 2000. Correlation between plasmid content and infectivity in Borrelia burgdorferi. PNAS. 97(25): 13865-13870. doi:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.97.25.13865. Url: https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.97.25.13865
Roy-Dufresne E, Logan T, Simon J, Chmura G, Millien V. 2013. Poleward Expansion of the White-Footed Mouse under Climate Change: Implications for Spread of Lyme Disease. PLOS ONE. 8(11): e80724. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080724. Url: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0080724
Sapi E, Pabbati N, Datar A, Davies E, Rattelle A, Kuo B. 2013. Improved Culture Conditions for the Growth and Detection of Borrelia from Human Serum. International Journal of Medical Sciences. 10(4): 362-376. doi: 10.7150/ijms.5698. Url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3590594/pdf/ijmsv10p0362.pdf
Sarkar A, Tilly K, Stewart P, Bestor A, Battisti J, Rosa P. 2009. Borrelia burgdorferi Resistance to a Major Skin Antimicrobial Peptide Is Independent of Outer Surface Lipoprotein Content. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 53(10): 4490-4494. doi:10.1128/AAC.00558-09. Url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2764146/
Schwan T, Burgdorfer W, Garon C. 1988. Changes in infectivity and plasmid profile of the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, as a result of in vitro cultivation. Infection and Immunology. 56(8): 1831–1836. doi:10.1128/iai.56.8.1831-1836.1988. Url: https://journals.asm.org/doi/epdf/10.1128/iai.56.8.1831-1836.1988
Schwan T, Piesman J, Golde W, Dolan M, Rosa P. 1995. Induction of an outer surface protein on Borrelia burgdorferi during tick feeding. PNAS. 92: 2909-2913. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.7.2909. Url: https://www.pnas.org/doi/epdf/10.1073/pnas.92.7.2909
Stafford K. 1991. Effectiveness of Carbaryl Applications for the Control of Ixodes dammini Nymphs in an Endemic Residential Area. Journal of Medical Entomology. 28(1): 32-36. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/28.1.32. Url: https://academic.oup.com/jme/article-abstract/28/1/32/2220853?redirectedFrom=fulltext
Stone B, Tourand Y, Brissette C. 2017. Brave New Worlds: The Expanding Universe of Lyme Disease. Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases. 17(9): 619-629. doi:10.1089/vbz.2017.2127. Url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5576071/
Sultan S, Manne A, Stewart P, Bestor A, Rosa P, Charon N, Motaleb M. 2013. Motility Is Crucial for the Infectious Life Cycle of Borrelia burgdorferi. Infection and Immunology. 81(6): 2012-2021. doi:https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.01228-12. Url: https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/IAI.01228-12
Sze C, Zhang K, Kariu T, Pal U, Li C. 2012. Borrelia burgdorferi Needs Chemotaxis To Establish Infection in Mammals and To Accomplish Its Enzootic Cycle. American Society for Microbiology. 80(7): 2485-2492. doi:https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.00145-12. Url: https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/IAI.00145-12
Takayama K, Rothenberg R, Barbour A. 1987. Absence of lipopolysaccharide in the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi. Infection and Immunity. 55(9): 2311-2313. doi:https://doi.org/10.1128/iai.55.9.2311-2313.1987. Url: https://journals.asm.org/doi/epdf/10.1128/iai.55.9.2311-2313.1987
Voordouw M, Tupper H, Onder O, Devevey G, Graves C, Kemps B, Brisson D. 2013. Reductions in Human Lyme Disease Risk Due to the Effects of Oral Vaccination on Tick-to-Mouse and Mouse-To-Tick Transmission. Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases. 13(4): 203-214. Doi: 10.1089/vbz.2012.1003. Url: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3610442/
Waddell L, Greig J, Lindsay L, Hinckley A, Ogden N. 2018. A systematic review on the impact of gestational Lyme disease in humans on fetus and newborn. PLOS ONE. 13(11) e0207067. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0207067. Url: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0207067
Walter K, Carpi G, Caccone A, Diuk-Wasser M. 2017. Genomic insights into the ancient spread of Lyme disease across North America. Nature: ecology and evolution. 1569-1576 doi:10.1038/s41559-017-0282-8. Url: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-017-0282-8
Wang C, Chacko S, Abdollah H, Baranchuk A. 2018. Treating Lyme carditis high-degree AV block using a temporary-permanent pacemaker. Annals of Noninvasive Electrocardiology. 224(3): e12599. doi:10.1111/anec.12599. Url: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/anec.12599
Weber K, Burgdorfer W, Schierz G. 1993. Aspects of Lyme Borreliosis: The Historical Road to the Discovery of Borrelia burgdorferi. Germany: Springer Berlin, Heidelberg. Url: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-77614-4_2
Wright W, Riedel D, Talwani R, Gillian B. 2012. Diagnosis and Management of Lyme Disease. American Family Physician. 85(11): 1086-1093. doi:https://www.aafp.org/afp/2012/0601/afp20120601p1086.pdf. Url: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22962880/
Yeung C, Baranchuk A. 2019. Diagnosis and Treatment of Lyme Carditis: JACC Review Topic of the Week. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 74(21): 2709-2711. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2018.11.035. Url: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109718394427?via%3Dihub
Zee J, Piesman J, Hojgaard A, Black W. 2015. Nuclear Markers Reveal Predominantly North to South Gene Flow in Ixodes scapularis, the Tick Vector of the Lyme Disease Spirochete. PLOS ONE. 10(11): e0139630. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139630. Url: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0139630
Zhang J, Norris S. 1998. Genetic Variation of the Borrelia burgdorferi Gene vlsE Involves Cassette-Specific, Segmental Gene Conversion. Infection and Immunology. 66(8): 3698–3704. doi:10.1128/IAI.66.8.3698-3704.1998. Url: https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/IAI.66.8.3698-3704.1998
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Andrew Gaetano, Elizabeth Danka
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
By submitting to Fine Focus, the author(s) agree to the terms of the Author Agreement. Beginning in Fall 2018, all authors retain copyrights associated with their article contributions and agree to make such contributions available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International license upon publication in Fine Focus. Copyrights to articles published prior to Fall 2018 have been transferred from the authors to Fine Focus.
