Christian privilege and experiences of oppression among people with a non-Christian background in Northern Ireland.

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.33043/c226z4ab68

Keywords:

Christian privilege, Oppression, Counseling, Northern Ireland, Social Justice

Abstract

The article aimed to provide insight into how people with a non-Christian background experience Christian privilege in Northern Ireland (NI) and to consider implications for the counseling profession. The current qualitative study was located in a transformative paradigm; it intended to advance a social justice agenda in counseling. Data were collected in five mini focus groups and one individual interview from 15 participants with a non-Christian background. Braun and Clarke’s (2006) reflexive thematic analysis (TA) was used to analyze the data, focusing on semantic level content. Analysis of data led to one overarching theme and five related themes. The overarching theme Outsiders captured how non-Christian participants often experienced the normalization of Christianity as the dominant worldview as oppression; they frequently felt they were treated as strangers who did not belong. Related themes included: Systemic Invisibility, Different and Alienated, Treated as an Enemy, Demeaned, Attacked, and Under Threat, and Attempts to Force Religious Conformity. The urgent need for the counseling profession in Christian hegemonic societies to critically engage with the phenomenon of Christian privilege was discussed.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biographies

Ali Graham, Ulster University, 2-24 York Street, Belfast. BT15 1ED. Northern Ireland

Lecturer, School of Communication & Media.

Ulster University.

Maggie Long, Ulster University, 2-24 York Street, Belfast. BT15 1ED. Northern Ireland

Lecturer, School of Communication and Media.

Ulster University.

Anthea Irwin, Ulster University, 2-24 York Street, Belfast. BT15 1ED. Northern Ireland.

Lecturer, School of Communication & Media.

Ulster University.

References

Accapadi, M. M. (2009). When a safe space becomes an oppressive space: Christmas in a cultural center. In W. J. Blumenfeld, K. Y. Joshi, & E. E. Fairchild (Eds.), Investigating Christian privilege and religious oppression in the United States (pp. 113-134). Sense Publishers. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789087906788_008

Amer, M. M., & Bagasra, A. (2013). Psychological research with Muslim Americans in the age of Islamophobia. American Psychologist, 68(3), 134-144. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032167 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032167

Amnesty International. (2023, May 16). Northern Ireland: Police figures reveal ‘deeply worrying’ rise in hate crimes [Press release]. https://www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/northern-ireland-police-figures-reveal-deeply-worrying-rise-hate-crimes

Aronson, B., Altowajri, M. A., Brown, D. M., Enright, E. A., & Stohry, H. R. (2021). A call for critical intersectional religious literacies: An intersectional examination of Whiteness and Christian privilege in teacher education. Religion and Education, 48(2), 155-177. https://doi.org/10.1080/15507394.2020.1856306 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15507394.2020.1856306

Bartoli, E., Bentley-Edwards, K. L., García, A. M., Michael, A. & Ervin, A. (2015). What do White counselors and psychotherapists need to know about race? White racial socialization in counseling and psychotherapy programs. Women & Therapy, 38, 246-262. https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2015.1059206 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2015.1059206

Belfast Islamic Centre. (2024). About Us. https://belfastislamiccentre.org.uk/about/

Blumenfeld, W. J. (2006). Christian privilege and the promotion of “secular” and not-so “secular” mainline Christianity in public schools and in the larger society. Equity and Excellence in Education, 39(3), 195-210. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665680600788024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10665680600788024

Blumenfeld, W. J. (2009). Christian privilege in the United States: An overview. In W. J. Blumenfeld, K. Y. Joshi, & E. E. Fairchild (Eds.), Investigating Christian privilege and religious oppression in the United States (pp. 3-22). Sense Publishers. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789087906788_002

Blumenfeld, W. J. (2020). Challenging Christian hegemony and Christian privilege in academia. In R. Papa (Ed.), Handbook on promoting social justice in education (pp. 2387-2416). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14625-2_113 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14625-2_113

Blumenfeld, W. J., & Jaekel, K. (2012). Exploring levels of Christian privilege awareness among preservice teachers. Journal of Social Issues, 68(1), 128-144. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01740.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01740.x

Blumenfeld, W. J., Joshi, K. Y., & Fairchild, E. E. (2009). Investing Christian privilege and religious oppression in the United States: Introduction to the anthology. In W. J. Blumenfeld, K. Y. Joshi, & E. E. Fairchild (Eds.), Investigating Christian privilege and religious oppression in the United States (pp. vii-xix). Sense Publishers. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789087906788

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa DOI: https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research: A practical guide for beginners. Sage.

British Broadcasting Association. (2023, August 23). Belfast mosque leader's worries after Nazi flags flown nearby. British Broadcasting Association. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-66590588

Case, K. A., McMullen, M., & Hentges, B. (2013). Teaching the taboo: Walking the tightrope of Christian privilege. In K. A. Case (Ed.), Deconstructing privilege: Teaching and learning as allies in the classroom (pp. 189-204). Routledge.

Cassel, D., Kemp, S., Pigou, P., & Sawyer, S. (2006). Report of the international panel on alleged collusion in sectarian killings in Northern Ireland. Center for Civil and Human Rights. https://cain.ulster.ac.uk/issues/collusion/docs/cassel061106.pdf

Chan, C. D., Cor, D. N., & Band, M. P. (2018). Privilege and oppression in counsellor education: An intersectionality framework. Journal of Multicultural Counselling and Development, 46(1), 58-74. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12092 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12092

Chantler, K. (2005). From disconnection to connection: “Race”, gender and the politics of therapy. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 33(2), 239-256. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069880500132813 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03069880500132813

Collins, P. H. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Commission on Religion and Belief in British Public Life. (2015). Living with difference: community, diversity and the common good. https://www.woolf.cam.ac.uk/assets/file-downloads/Living-with-Difference.pdf

Cook, K., Lusk, A., Miller, L., Dodier, O., & Salazar, A. (2012). Understanding unearned privilege: An experiential activity for counseling students. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 7(3), 289-303. https://doi.org/10.1080/15401383.2012.710167 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15401383.2012.710167

Davis, A. Y. (1982). Women, race, & class. Women’s Press.

Duggan, M. (2012). Queering conflict: Examining lesbian and gay experiences of homophobia in Northern Ireland. Routledge.

Edgell, P., Hartmann, D., Stewart, E., & Gerteis, J. (2016). Atheists and other cultural outsiders: Moral boundaries and the non-religious in the United States. Social Forces, 95(2), 607-638. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sow063 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sow063

Education and Libraries (Northern Ireland) Order 1986 No. 594 (N.I.3)

Edwards, S. (2017). Intergroup dialogue and religious identity. Attempting to raise awareness of Christian privilege and religious oppression. Multicultural Education, 24(2), 18-24.

Edwards, S. (2018). Distinguishing between belief and culture: A critical perspective on religious identity. Journal of College and Character, 19(3), 201-214. https://doi.org/10.1080/2194587X.2018.1481097 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/2194587X.2018.1481097

Eliyahu-Levi, D., & Semo, G. (2023). Bible teachers cultivate social awareness of otherness. Journal of Beliefs & Values, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2023.2207151 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2023.2207151

Evans, J., & Tonge, J. (2018). Partisan and religious drivers of moral conservatism: Same-sex marriage and abortion in Northern Ireland. Party Politics, 24(4), 335-346. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068816656665 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068816656665

Ferber, A. L. (2012). The culture of privilege: Color-blindness, post-feminism, and christonormativity. Journal of Social Issues, 68(1), 63-77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01736.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01736.x

Flasch, P., & Fulton, C. L. (2019). Counseling Jewish Americans: Considerations for practice. Counseling and Values, 64, 2-18. https://doi.org/10.1002/cvj.12091 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/cvj.12091

Gallagher, E. (2007). Racism and citizenship education in Northern Ireland. Irish Educational Studies, 26(3), 253-269. https://doi.org/10.1080/03323310701491513 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03323310701491513

Gethins, M. M. (2006). Catholic representation in policing Northern Ireland. [Doctoral dissertation, University of Aberdeen]. British Library EThoS.

Goodman, D. J. (2011). Promoting diversity and social justice: Educating people from privileged groups (1st ed.). Routledge.

Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (1st ed., pp. 105-117). Sage Publications.

Hasenbush, A., Flores, A. R., & Herman, J. L. (2019). Gender identity nondiscrimination laws in public accommodations: a review of evidence regarding safety and privacy in public restrooms, locker rooms, and changing rooms. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 16(1), 70-83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-018-0335-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-018-0335-z

Jordanova, V., Crawford, M., McManus, S., Bebbington, P., & Brugha, T. (2015). Religious discrimination and common mental health disorders in England: A nationally representative population-based study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50, 1723-1729. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-015-1110-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-015-1110-6

Joshi, K. Y. (2006). New roots in America’s sacred ground: Religion, race, and ethnicity in Indian America. Rutgers University Press.

Joshi, K. Y. (2009). The racialization of religion in the United States. In W. J. Blumenfeld, K. Y. Joshi, & E. E. Fairchild (Eds.), Investigating Christian privilege and religious oppression in the United States (pp. 37-56). Sense Publishers.

Joshi, K. Y. (2020). White Christian privilege: The illusion of religious equality in America. New York University Press. https://doi.org/10.1080/2194587X.2021.1977149 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9781479836468.001.0001

Judicial Communications Office. (2022). Court delivers decision on the challenge to teaching arrangements for religious education and collective worship in controlled primary schools. https://www.judiciaryni.uk/judicial-decisions/summary-judgement-court-delivers-decision-challenge-teaching-arrangements

Khaleeli, H. (2015, September 23). You worry they could take your kids: A Prevent strategy demonising Muslim school children. Guardian. http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/sep/23/prevent-counter-terrorism-strategy-schools-demonising-muslim-children

Kivel, P. (2013). Living in the shadow of the cross: Understanding and resisting the power and privilege of Christian hegemony. New Society Publishers.

Lorde, A. (2017). Your silence will not protect you: Essays and poems. Silver Press.

Lowry, D. R. (1976). Internment: Detention without trial in Northern Ireland. Human Rights, 5(3), 261-331.

Magaldi-Dopman, D. (2014). An “afterthought” counseling trainees’ multicultural competence within the spiritual/religious domain. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 42(4), 194-204. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2014.00054.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2014.00054.x

Markowitz, L., & Puchner, L. (2018). Structural ignorance of Christian privilege. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 31(10), 877-894. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2018.1506180 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2018.1506180

Marshall, T. (2018, October 20). “There is no Hindu community in Northern Ireland”: Diasporic Place-Making amongst Belfast’s Hindus [Conference paper]. Research in Religion Conference, The University of Edinburgh.

McBride, S. (2016, January 12). Interview: DUP's Christian values will not change, says Foster. Newsletter. https://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/interview-dups-christian-values-will-not-change-says-foster-1278893

McGarry, J. (2002). Democracy in Northern Ireland: Experiments in self-rule from the Protestant Ascendancy to the Good Friday Agreement. Nations and Nationalism, 8(4), 451-474. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-8219.00061 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-8219.00061

McIntosh, P. (2010). White privilege and male privilege: A personal account of coming to see correspondence through work in women's studies. In M. S. Kimmel & A. L. Ferber (Eds.), Privilege: A reader (2nd ed., pp. 13-26). Westview Press.

Mertens, D. M. (2009). Transformative research and evaluation. The Guilford Press.

Michael, L., Reynolds, D., Kempny, M. with Alsharabi, S., Borbely, C., Latcham, N., Logan, E., McDonagh, M., Pilkiewicz, M., Thabet, E., & Teglas, M. (2022). Inequalities experienced by Black, Asian, minority ethnic people, and Traveller people residing in Belfast: A report for Belfast City Council, Belfast Health and Social Care Trust, and Public Health Agency NI. Belfast City Council. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.34205.18409

Mindrup, R. M., Spray, B. J., & Lamberghini-West, A. (2011). White privilege and multicultural counseling competence: The influence of field of study, sex, and racial/ethnic exposure. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 20(1), 20-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/15313204.2011.545942 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15313204.2011.545942

Mintert, J., Tran, A. G. T. T., & Kurpius, S. (2020). Religious and/or spiritual social justice advocacy: Guidance from the multicultural and social justice counseling competencies. Counseling and Values, 65(1), 2-14. https://doi.org/10.1002/cvj.12119 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/cvj.12119

Montgomery, V. (2013). Multicultural Ireland? Muslim women and integration in Ireland. Irish Political Studies, 28(3), 434-449. https://doi.org/10.1080/07907184.2013.823087 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07907184.2013.823087

Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. (2022). Main statistics for Northern Ireland statistical bulletin religion. https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-main-statistics-for-northern-ireland-phase-1-statistical-bulletin-religion.pdf

Plumb, A. (2011). Spirituality and counselling: Are counsellors prepared to integrate religion and spirituality into therapeutic work with clients? Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 45(1), 1-16.

Ponterotto, J. G. (2005). Qualitative research in counseling psychology: A primer on research paradigms and philosophy of science. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(2), 126-136. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.2.126 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.52.2.126

Ratts, M. J., & Greenleaf, A. T. (2018). Counselor-advocate-scholar model: Changing the dominant discourse in counseling. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 46(2), 78-98. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12094 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12094

Ratts, M. J., Singh, A. A., Butler, S. K., Nassar-McMillan, S., & Rafferty McCullough, J. (2016, January 27). Multicultural and social justice counseling competencies: Practical applications in counseling. Counseling Today. https://ct.counseling.org/2016/01/multicultural-and-social-justice-counseling-competencies-practical-applications-in-counseling/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12035

Singh, A. A., Nassar, S. C., Arrendondo, P., & Toporek, R. (2020). The past guides the future: Implementing the multicultural and social justice counseling competencies. Journal of Counseling and Development, 98(3), 238-252. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12319 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12319

Small, J. L., Edwards, S., Sayers, M. R., Bowling, R. L., Collett, J. R., Kaur-Colbert, S., & Nielsen, J. C. (2022). Recognizing Christian hegemony as broader than Christian privilege: Critical religion scholars respond to Glanzer (2022). Religion & Education, 49(4), 355-373. https://doi.org/10.1080/15507394.2022.2139996 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15507394.2022.2139996

Spiritual Assembly of the Baha’is of Belfast. (n.d.). Who we are. Bahá’í Faith - Bahá’í Community of Belfast, Northern Ireland. https://bahai-belfast.org.uk/who-we-are/

Tarabi, S. A., Loulopoulou, A. I., & Henton, I. (2020). “Guide or conversation?” The experience of second-generation Pakistani Muslim men receiving CBT in the UK. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 33(1), 46-65. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070.2018.1471587 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070.2018.1471587

Thornton, C., Kelters, S., Feeney, B., & McKittrick, D. (2004). Lost lives: The stories of the men, women, and children who died as a result of the Northern Ireland Troubles (2nd ed.). Mainstream Publishing.

Todd, N. R., Yi, J., Blevins, E. J., McConnell, E. A., Mekawi, Y., & Bergmann, B. A. B. (2020). Christian and political conservatism predict opposition to sexual and gender minority rights through support for Christian hegemony. American Journal of Community Psychology, 66, 24-38. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12420 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12420

Transferor Representatives’ Council. (n.d.). History. https://trc-churcheducation.org/history/

Vellenga, S. (2018). Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia in the Netherlands: concepts, developments, and backdrops. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 33(2), 175-192. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537903.2018.1469257 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13537903.2018.1469257

Vieten, C., Scammell, S., Pilato, R., Ammondson, I., Pargament, K., & Lukoff, D. (2013). Spiritual and religious competencies for psychologists. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 5(3), 129-144. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032699 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032699

Walls, N. E., & Todd, J. (2014). Defending the faith: Resistance and struggle in recognising Christian privilege. In A. B. Dessel & R. M. Bolen (Eds.), Conservative Christian beliefs and sexual orientation in social work: Privilege, oppression, and the pursuit of human rights (pp. 377-406). Council on Social Work Education, Inc.

Weaver, M. (2018, October 29). KKK incident at Islamic centre is hate crime, says Belfast police. Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/oct/29/ku-klux-klan-incident-at-islamic-prayer-centre-newtownards-hate-say-belfast-police.

Wilkinson, S. (1998). Focus groups in feminist research: Power, interaction, and the co-construction of meaning. Women’s Studies International Forum, 21(1), 111-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-5395(97)00080-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-5395(97)00080-0

Winter, L. A., & Hanley, T. (2015). “Unless everyone’s covert guerrilla-like social justice practitioners…”: A preliminary study exploring social justice in UK counselling psychology. Counselling Psychology Review, 30(2), 32-46 https://doi.org/10.53841/bpscpr.2015.30.2.32 DOI: https://doi.org/10.53841/bpscpr.2015.30.2.32

Young, I. (1990). Justice and the politics of difference. Princeton University Press.

Published

2024-06-26

How to Cite

Graham, A., Long, M., & Irwin, A. (2024). Christian privilege and experiences of oppression among people with a non-Christian background in Northern Ireland . Journal for Social Action in Counseling & Psychology, 16(1), 59–82. https://doi.org/10.33043/c226z4ab68

Similar Articles

<< < 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 > >> 

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.